To stop procrastinating, shrink the first step until it is easy, then decide when and where you will take it. That advice rests on two large meta-analyses, one of 691 correlations and one of 94 tests of if-then plans. Popular procrastination tips for students, from timers to phones in drawers, are tested far less well, and this guide says which is which.
Where a finding rests on questionnaires, one small experiment, or a result that failed to repeat, we say so. Nothing here is medical advice, and the last section says when procrastination is a reason to talk to someone.
EdCitation publishes this guide. Every study was read in the paper itself in September 2026 unless we say we read only the abstract, the references were built in EdCitation's Cite a source and checked in Verify references, and Check your paper is where a stuck assignment gets its first step. The plan near the end is ours, built from the findings; no study tested it as a whole.
Why do students procrastinate?
Students procrastinate mostly because the task feels unpleasant and the reward is far away, not because they are lazy. Steel (2007) defined procrastinating as choosing to put off something you intended to do while expecting to be worse off for the delay, then pooled 691 correlations from studies of what goes with it.
| What goes with procrastination | Average correlation (studies) | What it suggests (our reading) |
|---|---|---|
| Low conscientiousness | -.62 (20) | Build structure from outside: a set time and place |
| Low self-control | -.58 (21) | Remove temptations rather than resist them |
| Distractibility | .45 (13) | Keep distractions out of sight while working |
| Impulsiveness | .41 (22) | Decide the next step in advance, not in the moment |
| Disliking the task | .40 (8) | Make the first step small and concrete |
| Low confidence in your ability | -.38 (39) | Start with a part you know you can do |
| Not knowing where to start | Not measured by Steel | Check your paper turns the brief into a checklist |
Two popular explanations came out weak. Perfectionism was barely related: only the sense that other people set your standards reached r = .18. A tendency to worry had a modest link (.24), which the studies Steel reviewed traced mostly to impulsiveness rather than anxiety. Procrastination also went with lower marks across 41 studies (r = -.19): a small link, and in Steel's reading of the spread, delay usually hurt, sometimes made no difference, and never helped.
The limits: these are correlations, so they show what travels with procrastination, not what causes it. Most samples were young university students, and most measures were self-reports.
Mood comes first
Sirois and Pychyl (2013) argue that procrastination is a way of repairing mood in the short term: putting off the essay makes you feel better now, and your future self pays. Their paper is a review and a theory, not a new experiment, but it explains why "just try harder" fails: the problem is the feeling the task gives you, so change the task, the setting, or how you treat yourself afterwards.
How do you stop procrastinating?
You stop procrastinating most reliably by deciding in advance exactly what you will do, when, and where. Psychologists call these implementation intentions, or if-then plans: "If it is 10 am on Tuesday and I am at my library desk, then I will open the brief and list the sections."
If-then plans
Gollwitzer and Sheeran (2006) pooled 94 tests with 8,461 participants and found that forming an if-then plan had a medium-to-large effect on reaching goals (d = .65). Nine tests of academic goals, with 836 people, gave a similar effect (d = .72), and 21 tests of overcoming initial reluctance to start gave d = .65. Of the 94 tests, 79 used university students.
A later meta-analysis tempers that figure. Wang et al. (2021) pooled studies of a related technique, picturing the goal and its obstacles before making the if-then plan, and found a small-to-medium effect overall (g = 0.336), lower for academic goals (g = 0.255, five studies, a difference that was not significant); the overall figure fell to 0.242 after adjusting for possible publication bias. The plans work; how much they add is less certain than the 2006 figure suggests.
Forgive yourself for last time
Forgiving yourself for putting off the last task may make the next one easier to start. Wohl et al. (2010) surveyed 119 first-year psychology students before each of two midterm exams. Those who had forgiven themselves for procrastinating before the first exam procrastinated less before the second, and the link ran through feeling less bad about it. The limits are the authors' own: one course, first-year students, one kind of exam, and a survey rather than an experiment.
Does the phone on your desk hurt your focus?
A phone left in sight may cost a little working memory, but the effect is smaller and less certain than the first study suggested. The research tested a phone's presence while it sat unused, not checking it.
The study that started it
Ward et al. (2017) ran two experiments with undergraduates. In the first, 520 students were randomly told to leave their phone on the desk face down, in a pocket or bag, or in another room, then took tests of working memory and reasoning. Those whose phone was in another room scored higher than those whose phone was on the desk; the pocket group fell between and did not differ significantly from either. In the second, with 275 students, the other-room group again beat the desk group on the working memory test, whether the phone was on or off.
The replications
Ruiz Pardo and Minda (2022) repeated Ward's second experiment with the same tasks and conditions, registered in advance, and found no difference between phone locations. We read the abstract; the full text would not load for us. Parry (2024) then ran six meta-analyses of the research on a phone's mere presence (k = 56, 7,093 participants). Only working memory showed a significant effect, smaller than the theory predicted, and the author warned that most studies were too small to be informative.
Moving the phone out of the room costs nothing, so it is a reasonable habit, but do not expect it alone to fix your focus, and these studies say nothing about picking the phone up.
Does the Pomodoro technique work?
The Pomodoro technique has little published evidence, and none that we found tests whether it reduces procrastination. It is worth trying as a structure, not as a proven method.
What its creator says it is
According to its own site, Francesco Cirillo created the technique in the late 1980s as a university student, starting with a tomato-shaped kitchen timer (Francesco Cirillo FZE-LLC, n.d.-b). The timer is wound to 25 minutes, and wound again for a 5-minute break (Francesco Cirillo FZE-LLC, n.d.-c). The site is firm that the timer is only the start: the full method adds daily planning, handling interruptions and estimating effort (Francesco Cirillo FZE-LLC, n.d.-a). The site cites no research.
What the studies found
We found two experiments and one review, by searching PubMed and the web in September 2026.
- Biwer et al. (2023) assigned 87 Dutch university students, for one real study day, to self-chosen breaks, a 6-minute break after every 24 minutes (their "Pomodoro" condition), or 3 minutes after every 12. Fixed breaks went with less fatigue and distraction and more concentration and motivation. Mental effort and the amount of work completed did not differ.
- Smits et al. (2025) gave 94 university students a 2-hour study session with self-chosen breaks, 5-minute breaks after every 25 minutes, or breaks sized to how long they had worked. Fatigue rose faster in the Pomodoro group, but by the end there were no differences in fatigue, motivation, productivity, work completed or flow.
- Ogut (2025) mapped 32 studies with 5,270 participants and concluded that timed Pomodoro intervals improved focus and reduced fatigue. Its randomised evidence, though, is three trials with 87 participants in all, and most of the rest is observational. We read the abstract only.
Neither experiment measured procrastination, marks or anything beyond a single session.
How can you plan a study session that beats procrastination?
A session that beats procrastination starts with a first step you can finish in minutes, fixed to a time and a place. This plan is ours, built from the studies above.
- Turn the assignment into a list. Paste the brief into Check your paper and get a checklist of what it asks, or do it by hand with how to read an assignment brief and rubric.
- Pick one item and shrink it. "Write the introduction" becomes "write three sentences saying what the essay argues".
- Write an if-then plan for it. "If it is 10 am and I am at the library desk, then I open the file and write those three sentences."
- Put the phone in another room or a bag. Cheap to do, even if the evidence for the effect is modest.
- Work in blocks with fixed breaks if that suits you. 25 and 5 minutes is the Pomodoro rhythm; the evidence does not say it beats other lengths.
- Look up sources when a point needs one. Search Find sources and build each reference in Cite a source as you note it, so there is no reference list to dread at the end.
- If you slipped, forgive it and plan the next step. Then go back to step 3.
For how to spend the study time itself, testing yourself and spacing sessions, see how to study effectively.
When is procrastination a sign to get help?
Procrastination is a reason to talk to someone when it keeps you from functioning, not when you simply put off one essay. The University of Maryland Counseling Center (n.d.) suggests extra help when time management trouble is "significantly interfering" with your academic, emotional or social life. Queen Mary University of London (n.d.) says the problem needs addressing when you fall further and further behind and feel terrible about yourself and your course.
Structured help has a record. Van Eerde and Klingsieck (2018) pooled 24 studies of procrastination programmes with 1,173 participants and found a large reduction that lasted at follow-up, with cognitive behavioural therapy doing best. We read the abstract only.
If putting things off comes with low mood or worry you cannot shake, contact your university's counselling or wellbeing service, or your doctor. If you are in danger, call your local emergency number. We cannot tell you what lies behind your procrastination; they can.
How does EdCitation help you start an assignment?
EdCitation is the best tool for making an assignment's first steps clear without writing any of it for you: it reads the brief into a checklist, looks every reference up in the publisher's record, and never writes a word of the paper. Every journal reference in this guide came back verified from its DOI.
Check your paper
Check your paper reads an assignment's instructions into a checklist, free: word limits for each part, required headings, how many sources and how recent, the citation style, font, spacing and margins, each with the sentence it came from. Checking the finished paper against that checklist is Theoretics QA, part of Max ($24 a month).
Find sources
Find sources searches about 300 million published works. In September 2026, "implementation intentions academic procrastination students" returned 2,058,047 works. First was a 2026 article in Acta Psychologica, "Beyond positive thinking: A randomized trial of mental contrasting with implementation intentions to curb academic procrastination", cited twice; fourth was a 2001 thesis. We have not read that trial, so this guide cites nothing from it.
Cite a source and Verify references
Cite a source built this guide's references from their DOIs. Steel's and Biwer's came back ready to use. Ward's, deposited in title case, came back in sentence case, as APA 7 asks: "Brain drain: The mere presence of one’s own smartphone reduces available cognitive capacity". Gollwitzer and Sheeran's came back as a chapter, "In Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 38, pp. 69–119). Elsevier.", its title in sentence case too; we list the series as psychologists usually do, as a periodical with 38 as its volume.
Verify references then checked the whole list of 17: 16 verified and none retracted, each web page with "The page is at this address, and its title matches." Queen Mary's page came back "could not check", because the site turns automated readers away; we opened it ourselves. All four tools are free with no account; see Pricing for Pro and Max.
Quick questions
Is procrastination just laziness?
No. Steel's meta-analysis linked procrastination most strongly to disliking the task, impulsiveness, distractibility and low confidence, and Sirois and Pychyl argue it is about escaping a bad feeling now.
How long is a Pomodoro?
The technique's own site describes 25 minutes of work, then a 5-minute break, and stresses that the full method also includes planning and handling interruptions.
Should I put my phone in another room when studying?
It costs nothing and may help a little. The first study found a phone on the desk lowered working memory scores; a direct replication did not, and a 2024 meta-analysis found only a small effect.
What is an implementation intention?
An implementation intention is an if-then plan naming when, where and how you will act. Across 94 tests it had a medium-to-large effect on reaching goals.
Can EdCitation help me start an assignment I keep putting off?
Yes. EdCitation's Check your paper turns the brief into a checklist free, so you can pick one small item to start with; it never writes any of the paper.
References
- Biwer, F., Wiradhany, W., oude Egbrink, M. G. A., & de Bruin, A. B. H. (2023). Understanding effort regulation: Comparing 'Pomodoro' breaks and self-regulated breaks. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(S2), 353–367. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12593
- Francesco Cirillo FZE-LLC. (n.d.-a). Pomodoro Technique: Time management method. Pomodoro Technique. https://www.pomodorotechnique.com/
- Francesco Cirillo FZE-LLC. (n.d.-b). The Pomodoro Technique: Book, ebook and audiobook. Pomodoro Technique. https://www.pomodorotechnique.com/pomodoro-book/
- Francesco Cirillo FZE-LLC. (n.d.-c). Pomodoro Classic Timer. Pomodoro Technique. https://www.pomodorotechnique.com/solutions/pomodoro-classic-timer/
- Gollwitzer, P. M., & Sheeran, P. (2006). Implementation intentions and goal achievement: A meta-analysis of effects and processes. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 69–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(06)38002-1
- Ogut, E. (2025). Assessing the efficacy of the Pomodoro technique in enhancing anatomy lesson retention during study sessions: A scoping review. BMC Medical Education, 25(1), Article 1440. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-025-08001-0
- Parry, D. A. (2024). Does the mere presence of a smartphone impact cognitive performance? A meta-analysis of the "brain drain effect." Media Psychology, 27(5), 737–762. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2023.2286647
- Queen Mary University of London. (n.d.). Procrastination. Advice and Counselling Service. https://www.qmul.ac.uk/welfare/wellbeing-support/wellbeing-resources/a-z-common-topics/procrastination/
- Ruiz Pardo, A. C., & Minda, J. P. (2022). Reexamining the "brain drain" effect: A replication of Ward et al. (2017). Acta Psychologica, 230, Article 103717. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2022.103717
- Sirois, F., & Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the priority of short-term mood regulation: Consequences for future self. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7(2), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011
- Smits, E. J. C., Wenzel, N., & de Bruin, A. (2025). Investigating the effectiveness of self-regulated, Pomodoro, and Flowtime break-taking techniques among students. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), Article 861. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070861
- Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65
- University of Maryland Counseling Center. (n.d.). Time management and procrastination. https://counseling.umd.edu/resources/students/time-management-procrastination
- van Eerde, W., & Klingsieck, K. B. (2018). Overcoming procrastination? A meta-analysis of intervention studies. Educational Research Review, 25, 73–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2018.09.002
- Wang, G., Wang, Y., & Gai, X. (2021). A meta-analysis of the effects of mental contrasting with implementation intentions on goal attainment. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, Article 565202. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.565202
- Ward, A. F., Duke, K., Gneezy, A., & Bos, M. W. (2017). Brain drain: The mere presence of one's own smartphone reduces available cognitive capacity. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 2(2), 140–154. https://doi.org/10.1086/691462
- Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., & Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. Personality and Individual Differences, 48(7), 803–808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029