"Staff were recruited in several ways, e.g., posters, emails, etc." That sentence, which is ours, breaks two rules. Chicago calls etc. after e.g. redundant, since "for example" already says there are more (University of Chicago Press, 2023), and APA and MLA would move e.g. into parentheses or write "for example".
EdCitation publishes this guide to Latin abbreviations in academic writing: what each means, from the Oxford and Cambridge learner's dictionaries, and how APA 7, MLA 9, Chicago 18, Cite Them Right Harvard, IEEE and the NLM's Vancouver samples set it, read at the publishers on 27 September 2026. APA's site put up a bot check, so we read archived copies; rules behind a subscription are marked as not read.
One abbreviation a tool can set for you is et al. EdCitation's Cite a source takes every author from the publisher's record and applies each style's et al. rule to the reference and the in-text citation. The rest of the Latin is yours.
What do e.g., i.e., etc. and the other Latin abbreviations mean?
Each shortens a Latin word or phrase: e.g. means "for example", i.e. "that is", etc. "and so forth", et al. "and others". The sic and ibid. rows summarise our guides to sic and ibid..
| Abbreviation | Latin | Meaning | APA 7 | MLA 9 | Chicago 18 | Source of the meaning |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| e.g. | exempli gratia | for example | Parentheses only; comma after | Parentheses only; comma after | Parentheses, notes, tables; comma after | Oxford Learner's |
| i.e. | id est | that is | Parentheses only; comma after | Parentheses only; comma after | Parentheses, notes, tables; comma after | Oxford Learner's |
| etc. | et cetera | and so forth | Parentheses only, after a comma | Parentheses only | Never after e.g. | Oxford Learner's |
| et al. | et alii, et alia | and others | Three or more authors | Three or more, in citations and works cited | Three or more in text citations | Oxford Learner's |
| cf. | confer | compare | Parentheses only | Citations; not for "see also" | Not read | Oxford Learner's |
| viz. | videlicet | namely | Parentheses only; comma after | No rule found | In its scholarly list | Oxford Learner's |
| vs. | versus | against | Parentheses only; v. for court cases | v. for court cases | v. for cases, vs. elsewhere | APA |
| ca. or c. | circa | about, with dates | ca. before an approximate year | "Circa" in full | Listed; not read | Oxford Learner's, Cambridge |
| N.B. | nota bene | take note | Not listed | No rule found | Not read | Oxford Learner's |
| sic | sic | thus | Italic, in brackets | Roman, in brackets | Italic, in brackets | Our sic guide |
| ibid. | ibidem | in the same place | Not used | Not used | Notes only, discouraged | Our ibid. guide |
Meanings are from the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary (Oxford University Press, n.d.-a to n.d.-i), Cambridge for ca. (Cambridge University Press, n.d.), and APA's list, which glosses vs. "versus or against" (American Psychological Association, 2021).
What is the difference between e.g. and i.e.?
E.g. introduces some examples from a longer list; i.e. introduces the exact thing you mean. Kiernan (2025), writing for the MLA, suggests putting "for example" or "that is" in its place and seeing which says what you mean. Chicago calls it general against specific (University of Chicago Press, 2023).
Two sentences of ours
- "Ward staff (e.g., nurses and healthcare assistants) completed the survey." Some kinds of staff, among others.
- "Ward staff (i.e., the 42 nurses on the night rota) completed the survey." Exactly these people.
If a reader could add to the list, you mean e.g.
Do you put a comma after e.g. and i.e.?
In APA 7, MLA 9 and Chicago 18, yes. APA prints "e.g.," and "i.e.," with the comma as part of the form (American Psychological Association, 2021), the MLA asks for a comma after either (Kiernan, 2025), and Chicago says both are normally followed by one (University of Chicago Press, 2023).
British practice often leaves it out. Replying to a reader, Chicago's editors noted that New Hart's Rules (2014) keeps the full stops but no comma, that the Guardian and Observer write "eg" and "ie" with neither, and that science writing often drops the full stops (University of Chicago Press, 2023). The Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary prints "popular pets, e.g. cats and dogs" (Oxford University Press, n.d.-c). We could not read New Hart's Rules itself.
What goes before the abbreviation
A comma is fine before a list, but when i.e. opens a new independent clause, Chicago asks for a semicolon, and says a colon or dash is often better (University of Chicago Press, n.d.-c).
Which wins? The style your course names. If a UK handbook prints "e.g." without a comma, follow it every time; British or American English in academic writing covers the choices that travel with it.
Can you use e.g., i.e. and etc. in academic writing outside parentheses?
Not in APA or MLA; Chicago allows them in parentheses, notes and tables only. APA asks for the English in the narrative, "that is" rather than "i.e." (American Psychological Association, 2021), and never italicises or defines them (American Psychological Association, 2022). The MLA calls them inappropriate in prose (Doose, 2022) and puts e.g. before its examples, never at a sentence's end (Modern Language Association of America, 2023). Chicago's editors write "that is" in running text (University of Chicago Press, n.d.-c).
IEEE sets no such rule that we found: its own manual uses "e.g.," and "i.e.," in roman with a comma, inside parentheses and out (IEEE, 2024).
Our example, before and after
Before: "The trust cut agency spending, i.e. it hired fewer temporary nurses, locum doctors, etc."
After: "The trust cut agency spending; that is, it hired fewer temporary nurses and locum doctors."
How to use etc. in academic writing
- Never after e.g., which already implies more (University of Chicago Press, 2023).
- Rarely with i.e.: a specific phrase is almost always better.
- At the end of a sentence, one full stop does both jobs (Modern Language Association of America, 2018).
- In APA, a comma comes before it: ", etc." (American Psychological Association, 2022).
How does each style set et al.?
Every style below keeps et al., but each sets its own threshold and typeface. The full rules are in when to use et al..
| Style | In the text | In the reference list | Italics? |
|---|---|---|---|
| APA 7 | Three or more authors, from the first citation | Authors named | No |
| MLA 9 | Three or more, in parentheses | First author, et al. | No |
| Chicago 18 author-date | Three or more | Up to six; more than six, first three and et al. | No |
| Harvard (Cite Them Right) | Four or more | First author et al., or every author | Yes |
| IEEE | A number; et al. when naming three or more | Up to six; more than six, first author et al. | No |
| Vancouver (NLM samples) | A number | First six, then et al. | No |
Sources: American Psychological Association (2019); the MLA on roman type (Modern Language Association of America, 2019b); Chicago's samples (University of Chicago Press, n.d.-a), which prefers roman (University of Chicago Press, 2021); IEEE (2025), whose word list sets it in roman (IEEE, 2024); and the NLM (U.S. National Library of Medicine, n.d.).
Harvard: universities differ
Manchester Metropolitan University's Cite Them Right guide prints et al. in italics and recommends it in the reference list for four or more authors (Manchester Metropolitan University, n.d.). Newcastle University, using the same style, wants every author listed unless there are ten or more (Newcastle University Library, n.d.). Cite Them Right itself is a subscription site we could not read.
What do cf., viz., vs., ca. and N.B. mean in a paper?
Each is rarer, and each has a trap.
cf. means compare, not see
Cf. is confer, "compare". The MLA allows it in parenthetical citations but not where "see also" is meant: cf. sets one source against another (Modern Language Association of America, 2019a).
viz. means namely
Viz. abbreviates videlicet and spells out what came before. Oxford marks it formal and especially British (Oxford University Press, n.d.-i); APA allows it in parentheses (American Psychological Association, 2021); Chicago's list of about fifty Latin scholarly abbreviations ends with it (University of Chicago Press, 2023). "Namely" is usually clearer.
vs. and v.
APA and MLA write "v." in a court case's name, Brown v. Board of Education, whatever the source prints (American Psychological Association, 2021; Modern Language Association of America, 2017). Chicago uses v. for cases and vs. elsewhere (University of Chicago Press, 2023). Oxford's British entry has "vs", no full stop (Oxford University Press, n.d.-h).
ca., c. and a trap in Vancouver
Circa means "about" and goes before an uncertain date. APA writes "(Original work published ca. 2500–2750 B.C.E.)" for the Epic of Gilgamesh (Becker, 2021); the MLA writes the word out, "Circa 1400-10" (Rappaport, 2018). Chicago's index sends ca. to paragraphs 7.57 and 10.48, which we could not read (University of Chicago Press, n.d.-b). Oxford abbreviates circa as c. (Oxford University Press, n.d.-b), Cambridge as ca (Cambridge University Press, n.d.).
In a Vancouver reference, "c1999" in the NLM's sample for a web page is the copyright date, not circa (U.S. National Library of Medicine, n.d.).
N.B.
N.B. is nota bene, a signal to take note (Oxford University Press, n.d.-g). No style we read gives it a place in a paper; in our view, say in words why a point matters.
Which Latin abbreviation mistakes cost marks?
Every example here is ours.
- i.e. for e.g. "Core subjects (e.g., mathematics, English and science)" when those are the only three: write i.e.
- etc. after e.g. "(e.g., surveys, interviews, etc.)": drop etc.
- No comma in APA, MLA or Chicago. "(e.g. surveys)" becomes "(e.g., surveys)".
- Latin in running text. "Participants, i.e. nurses, were..." becomes "Participants, that is, nurses, were..." in APA or MLA.
- Two full stops. "...pens, paper, etc.." ends with one.
- Wrong et al. "et. al" and "et al" should read "et al.": "et" is a whole word.
- cf. meaning see. "(cf. Patel, 2021)" for a source that agrees with you: write "see".
- vs. in a case name. In APA or MLA, write v.
What about sic and ibid.?
Sic, "thus", marks an error that was in the source; where it goes and whether it is italic are in what does sic mean. Ibid. and op. cit. are footnote Latin that APA, MLA and Harvard never use: see ibid., op. cit. and loc. cit. explained.
How does EdCitation handle et al. for you?
EdCitation's Cite a source is the best tool for the one Latin abbreviation that depends on data: it looks the reference up in the publisher's record and never writes one, which no chatbot can do. It reads every author from the record by DOI, title, PubMed ID or ISBN, builds the entry in six styles, and screens the source for retraction, free with no account.
Two runs, quoted exactly
On 27 September 2026 we ran 10.1038/nrn3475, a 2013 Nature Reviews Neuroscience paper with seven authors. In-text: APA "(Button et al., 2013)", MLA "(Button et al.)", Chicago "(Button et al. 2013)", Harvard "(Button et al., 2013)", IEEE "[1]", Vancouver "(1)". APA's reference named all seven; MLA gave "Button, Katherine S., et al."; Chicago "Button, Katherine S., John P. A. Ioannidis, Claire Mokrysz, et al."; Harvard "Button, K.S. et al."; IEEE "K. S. Button et al."; Vancouver six names, then "et al.".
Then 10.1038/sdata.2016.18, the 2016 FAIR Guiding Principles paper, with 53 authors. APA named the first 19, then "… Mons, B. (2016)", the final author; in-text, "(Wilkinson et al., 2016)".
Three things to correct. Add the page to MLA's citation. The Harvard in-text citation came back without italics, so italicise et al. when you paste it. IEEE's journal names came back abbreviated with IEEE's full stops, "Nat. Rev. Neurosci." and "Sci. Data". And the third FAIR author, IJsbrand Jan Aalbersberg, came out as "Aalbersberg, Ij. J." in APA and "Aalbersberg IjJ" in Vancouver, where PubMed has "Aalbersberg IJ": keep the capital J.
Checking the rest
Verify references, free, checks each entry against the record; where an entry lists every author, it reports anyone the record names and the entry leaves out. Check your paper, free, reads your brief into a checklist that includes the citation style. On Pro at $8 a month, Mechanics QA checks the whole paper by rule: formatting against the style, citations, numbers and language, each finding with its fix. None of them writes a word of your paper.
Quick questions
What is the difference between e.g. and i.e.?
E.g. means "for example" and gives some examples from a longer list. I.e. means "that is" and gives the exact thing you mean.
Do you put a comma after e.g. in APA?
Yes. APA, MLA and Chicago put a comma after e.g. and i.e., as in "(e.g., surveys)". Some British guides, such as New Hart's Rules, leave it out.
What does et al. mean, and when does APA use it?
Et al. is the Latin et alii, "and others". APA 7 uses it for three or more authors in every in-text citation, from the first; EdCitation's Cite a source applies it to the record's author list.
What does cf. mean in a citation?
Cf. is the Latin confer, "compare": set this source beside another. For further reading, write "see also".
Can I write etc. in an essay?
In APA and MLA, only inside parentheses; in running text, write "and so forth" or name the rest. Never put etc. after e.g.
References
- American Psychological Association. (2019). Author–date citation system. APA Style. https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/basic-principles/author-date
- American Psychological Association. (2021). Latin abbreviations. APA Style. https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/abbreviations/latin
- American Psychological Association. (2022). APA Style abbreviations guide [PDF]. https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/abbreviations-guide.pdf
- Becker, D. (2021, April 5). Citing classical and religious works. APA Style. https://apastyle.apa.org/blog/citing-classical-religious-works
- Cambridge University Press. (n.d.). Circa. In Cambridge Dictionary. https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/circa
- Doose, S. (2022, May 25). A closer look at MLA style. MLA Style Center. https://style.mla.org/closer-look-at-mla-style/
- IEEE. (2024). IEEE editorial style manual for authors [PDF]. https://journals.ieeeauthorcenter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/7/IEEE-Editorial-Style-Manual-for-Authors.pdf
- IEEE. (2025). IEEE reference guide (V 3.28.2025). IEEE Author Center. https://journals.ieeeauthorcenter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/7/IEEE_Reference_Guide.pdf
- Kiernan, L. (2025, December 17). E.g. and i.e.: Choosing the right abbreviation. MLA Style Center. https://style.mla.org/eg-and-ie/
- Manchester Metropolitan University. (n.d.). Cite Them Right Harvard. https://www.mmu.ac.uk/library/referencing-and-study-support/referencing/cite-them-right-harvard
- Modern Language Association of America. (2017, April 5). Documenting legal works in MLA style. MLA Style Center. https://style.mla.org/documenting-legal-works/
- Modern Language Association of America. (2018, July 12). If a sentence ends with an abbreviation followed by a period, should I insert another period? MLA Style Center. https://style.mla.org/abbreviation-period-end-sentence/
- Modern Language Association of America. (2019a, July 24). Is it acceptable to use the abbreviation cf. in MLA style? MLA Style Center. https://style.mla.org/cf-for-confer-or-compare/
- Modern Language Association of America. (2019b, January 17). Should et al. be italicized in MLA style? MLA Style Center. https://style.mla.org/styling-et-al/
- Modern Language Association of America. (2023, March 1). Can e.g. be used at the end of a sentence? MLA Style Center. https://style.mla.org/eg-end-of-sentence/
- Newcastle University Library. (n.d.). When do I use et al with author names when using the Cite Them Right Harvard referencing style? https://libhelp.ncl.ac.uk/faq/246838
- Oxford University Press. (n.d.-a). Cf. In Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/cf
- Oxford University Press. (n.d.-b). Circa. In Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/circa
- Oxford University Press. (n.d.-c). E.g. In Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/e-g
- Oxford University Press. (n.d.-d). Et al. In Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/et-al
- Oxford University Press. (n.d.-e). Etc. In Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/etc
- Oxford University Press. (n.d.-f). I.e. In Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/i-e
- Oxford University Press. (n.d.-g). NB. In Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/nb
- Oxford University Press. (n.d.-h). Versus. In Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/versus
- Oxford University Press. (n.d.-i). Viz. In Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/viz
- Rappaport, J. (2018, April 25). A guide to citing materials from physical archives and collections. MLA Style Center. https://style.mla.org/citing-materials-physical-archives/
- University of Chicago Press. (n.d.-a). Author-date: Sample citations. The Chicago Manual of Style Online. https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide-2.html
- University of Chicago Press. (n.d.-b). Index: C. The Chicago Manual of Style (18th ed.). https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/book/ed18/backmatter/index/c.html
- University of Chicago Press. (n.d.-c). Punctuation (Q&A). The Chicago Manual of Style Online. https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/qanda/data/faq/topics/Punctuation/faq0036.html
- University of Chicago Press. (2021, December 14). Italics in context: Getting more from Word. CMOS Shop Talk. https://cmosshoptalk.com/2021/12/14/italics-in-context-getting-more-from-word/
- University of Chicago Press. (2023, April 11). I.e., e.g., etc. CMOS Shop Talk. https://cmosshoptalk.com/2023/04/11/i-e-e-g-etc/
- U.S. National Library of Medicine. (n.d.). Samples of formatted references for authors of journal articles. https://www.nlm.nih.gov/bsd/uniform_requirements.html