Writing the paper
Doing what the assignment asked, quoting and paraphrasing properly, and handing in something clean.
Most marks lost on a paper are not lost on the argument. They go on the brief that was not read closely, the part that was over the word limit, the quotation that should have been a paraphrase, and the formatting rules that a marker notices in the first thirty seconds.
These guides work from the brief and the rubric forwards: what the command words ask of you, how to turn instructions into a checklist, when to quote and when to put it in your own words, and what to fix before you submit.
116 guides
October 3, 2026 · 13 min read
A Million Little Pieces and fake memoirs: do publishers check?
What happened with James Frey's A Million Little Pieces, and do publishers fact-check memoirs?
How The Smoking Gun undid A Million Little Pieces, five other memoir cases from the record, and what publishers say they check before a memoir goes out.
Everyone
October 3, 2026 · 13 min read
Famous writers who loved the em dash, from Sterne to Joyce
Which famous writers used the em dash, and what did they use it for?
Sterne, Dickinson, Austen, Byron, Poe, Kleist and Joyce: what each writer used the dash for, what printers did to it, and how to quote it in an essay.
Everyone
October 3, 2026 · 13 min read
Famous writers' daily routines and drafts, in their own words
What were famous writers' daily routines, and how did they draft and revise, in their own words?
The routines, daily word counts and drafts of Morrison, Angelou, Hemingway, Trollope, King and others, from the Paris Review and their own words, each one sourced.
Everyone
October 3, 2026 · 12 min read
Funny and odd scientific paper titles, and famous first lines
What are the funniest and oddest scientific paper titles, and the most famous first lines in science?
Funny and odd scientific paper titles and famous first lines, from Upper's blank 1974 paper to Watson and Crick, each with its DOI and how to cite it.
Everyone
October 3, 2026 · 13 min read
How famous writers revised: first drafts and alternate endings
How did famous writers revise their work, and what do their surviving drafts and alternate endings show?
The drafts and endings Austen, Dickens, Shelley, Owen, Eliot, Fitzgerald, Hemingway and Carver left behind, where to see them, and what they teach.
Everyone
October 3, 2026 · 13 min read
How to write a cover letter for a literary magazine
How do I write a cover letter for a literary magazine submission?
What literary magazines ask a cover letter and bio to say, in their own words, with an example letter, simultaneous submission wording and what to leave out.
Undergraduate
October 3, 2026 · 13 min read
How to write for a student newspaper, from pitch to print
How do I write for a student newspaper?
How to join and write for a student newspaper: pitches, news copy, AP and house style, ethics codes, op-ed rules from named papers, and student press law.
Undergraduate
October 3, 2026 · 12 min read
Rejected classics: famous books publishers turned down
Which famous books were rejected by publishers, and what do the rejection letters actually say?
Animal Farm, Lord of the Flies, Peter Rabbit and other famous rejections, read in the letters themselves, and the popular stories no document supports.
Everyone
October 3, 2026 · 12 min read
Where to submit a short story: 13 magazines and their rules
Where can I submit a short story to be published?
Thirteen magazines' own submission rules, read on 3 October 2026: word limits, reading periods, fees, simultaneous submissions and AI policies, side by side.
Undergraduate
October 3, 2026 · 13 min read
Women who wrote under male pen names, and how to cite them
Why did women writers publish under men's names, and how do you cite an author's pen name?
The Brontës, George Eliot and other women who wrote under men's names, told from their own words, and how to cite a pen name in APA 7 and MLA 9.
Everyone
October 2, 2026 · 13 min read
How to argue a position in writing: claim, evidence, warrant
How do I argue a position in an essay, with a claim, evidence and a warrant?
Argue a position in writing: claim, evidence and warrant, a Toulmin model example, a position paper plan, and how a debate case becomes paragraphs.
Undergraduate
October 2, 2026 · 13 min read
How to write a topic sentence and a strong, cohesive paragraph
How do I write a strong paragraph with a clear topic sentence and good cohesion?
Write topic sentences that make a claim, keep each paragraph to one point, and build cohesion with given-new order, clear reference words and lexical chains.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
Academic tone: first person, the passive voice and contractions
Can I use "I" and "we" in academic writing, and when should I use the passive voice?
What APA 7, MLA, Chicago, Nature and six universities say about I and we, the passive voice, contractions, you and hedging, with before-and-after examples.
Secondary schoolUndergraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
Academic vocabulary and concise writing: words to use and cut
What is academic vocabulary, and how do I write concisely in an essay?
The Academic Word List and its critics, formal words for essays from university guides, and how to write concisely, with before-and-after examples of our own.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
Academic writing in a second language: a practical guide
How do I write good academic English when English is my second language?
What markers weigh in second-language writing, the errors that recur, paraphrasing safely, dictionaries and corpora, and what universities allow from tools.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 14 min read
Academic writing in French: dissertation, mémoire and plan
How do you write a dissertation, a commentaire de texte or a mémoire at a French-speaking university?
The dissertation and its plan, the commentaire de texte and the mémoire at French, Belgian, Swiss and Québec universities: parts, lengths, pledges, AI and "nous".
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
Academic writing in German: Hausarbeit, thesis and declaration
How do you write a Hausarbeit or a thesis at a German-speaking university?
The Hausarbeit, Bachelorarbeit and Masterarbeit at German, Austrian and Swiss universities: parts, lengths, the declaration of own work, AI, "ich" and the Exposé.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 14 min read
Academic writing in Mandarin at Chinese universities: the thesis
How do you write a thesis (学位论文) in Mandarin at a Chinese university?
The 学位论文 at Chinese universities: its parts, lengths in characters, the proposal, similarity checks, misconduct rules and the new AI rules, read at source.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
Appendices, tables and figures in a thesis or dissertation
How do I set out appendices, tables and figures in a thesis or dissertation, and credit ones taken from a source?
What goes in a thesis appendix, how to number and title tables and figures, how to credit one taken from a source, and what six universities' rules require.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
Can you split an infinitive? Where the old rule came from
Can you split an infinitive in English, and in academic writing?
What a split infinitive is, which nineteenth-century writers invented the rule against it, what today's style guides say, and when to split in a paper.
Everyone
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
Can you start a sentence with and or but in academic writing?
Can you start a sentence with "and" or "but" in academic writing?
What Merriam-Webster, Chicago, the MLA and writing centres say about starting a sentence with and, but, because, however or so, and where the school rule came from.
Undergraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
Critical writing vs descriptive writing, with a worked example
What is the difference between critical writing and descriptive writing?
What markers mean by too descriptive, from six universities' guides, with questions that turn description into analysis and a paragraph rewritten from real studies.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 12 min read
Dissertation formatting: university templates and Word styles
How do I format a dissertation or thesis with my university's template?
Format a dissertation to your university's template: margins, fonts, page numbers, Word styles, LaTeX classes and PDF/A, from six universities' own rules.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
Dissertation literature review chapter: how to write it
How do I write the literature review chapter of a dissertation?
The literature review as one dissertation chapter: its length beside the others, its links to the questions, method and discussion, and what markers ask.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
Dissertation timeline and plan, working back from the deadline
How do I plan a dissertation timeline, working back from the submission date?
Plan a dissertation timeline back from the deadline: the fixed dates, ethics delays, a Gantt chart, extensions, PhD milestones and a 12-week worked plan.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
Dissertation word count: what counts and what does not
What counts towards a dissertation word count, and what is left out?
What a dissertation word count includes at nine universities: references, footnotes, appendices, tables, abstract, penalties, and why Word counts differently.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
Ending a sentence with a preposition: where the rule came from
Can you end a sentence with a preposition?
Where the ban on ending a sentence with a preposition came from, what Dryden wrote in 1672, the Churchill myth, and what dictionaries and essays ask now.
Everyone
September 26, 2026 · 14 min read
Hedging and cautious language in academic writing
How do I use hedging and cautious language in academic writing?
Hedges, boosters and reporting verbs from seven universities' guides and Hyland's research, with claims over-stated, over-hedged and right, on real studies.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
How journalists cite scientific studies in a news story
How should a journalist cite a scientific study in a news article?
How to cite a study in a news article: what press codes ask, naming and linking the paper, preprints, embargoes, the exaggeration research, and a checklist.
Everyone
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
How to attribute quotes in news writing and journalism
How do you attribute quotes in a news article?
How to attribute quotes in news writing: said or says, on and off the record, anonymous sources, documents, posts and other outlets' reporting.
Everyone
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
How to choose a dissertation topic you can finish
How do I choose a dissertation topic?
Choose a dissertation topic: where ideas come from, what makes one feasible, scoping searches, narrowing, originality by level, and a worked example.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
How to choose a research method for your dissertation
How do I choose a research method for my dissertation?
Choose a dissertation research method: which designs suit which questions, the limits of time, access and ethics, sample sizes, and the methods texts to cite.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
How to explain your research in two minutes, with 3MT tips
How do I explain my research simply to a non-specialist in two minutes?
How to explain your research in two minutes: a structure, a worked example, the Three Minute Thesis rules, lay summary limits and what research says about jargon.
PostgraduateResearcher
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
How to integrate sources: synthesis, not summary
How do I integrate sources by synthesis instead of summarising them one by one?
Integrate sources by synthesis, not summary: build a synthesis matrix, group sources by theme, signal agreement and disagreement, and cite several per paragraph.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
How to pitch an opinion piece, from the outlets' own rules
How do I pitch an opinion piece or op-ed to a newspaper?
What the Times, the Post, the Guardian, the Irish Times, the Globe and Mail and The Conversation ask of an op-ed pitch, read at source, with evidence checked.
ResearcherEveryone
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
How to prepare for a viva or dissertation defence
How do I prepare for a PhD viva or thesis defence, and what will the examiners ask?
How to prepare for a PhD viva or thesis defence: formats at seven universities, what examiners assess, the questions they ask, mock vivas, and a four-week plan.
PostgraduateResearcher
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
How to structure an essay: introduction, body and conclusion
How do I structure an essay, from the introduction to the conclusion?
Structure an essay's introduction, body paragraphs and conclusion from seven universities' guides, with the proportions they give and a worked outline.
Secondary schoolUndergraduate
September 26, 2026 · 14 min read
How to use feedback to improve your next essay
How do I use my tutor's feedback to improve my next essay?
What common essay feedback comments mean, from six universities' guides, what research says about using feedback, and a feedback log and action plan to copy.
Undergraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
How to use office hours and ask your lecturer for help
How do I use office hours and ask my professor or lecturer for help?
What office hours and student hours are at US and UK universities, what to bring and ask, how to email a professor, and the other academic support on offer.
Undergraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
How to write a book review for a class or a journal
How do I write an academic book review, and how do I cite the book and the review?
Write an academic book review for a class or a journal: what it does, the heading journals require, its length, and how to cite the book and the review.
UndergraduateResearcher
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
How to write a case study assignment, with structures by field
How do I write a case study assignment, and how should it be structured?
Write a case study assignment: structures by field from ten universities, SWOT, PESTLE and the nursing process, confidentiality, and citing the case itself.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 14 min read
How to write a compare and contrast essay, with an example
How do I write a compare and contrast essay at university?
Write a compare and contrast essay that argues: grounds, thesis, block or point-by-point structure, and a worked paragraph comparing two real studies.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
How to write a conference abstract for a talk or poster
How do I write an abstract for a conference, and what do the reviewers look for?
How to write a conference abstract from six meetings' own calls: limits and what counts, titles, references, unfinished work, posters and publishing later.
PostgraduateResearcher
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
How to write a counterargument and rebuttal in an essay
How do I write a counterargument and rebuttal paragraph in an essay?
Write a counterargument and rebuttal paragraph: what nine writing guides say, where it goes, the phrases, refute, concede or qualify, and worked examples.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 12 min read
How to write a critical review or critique of an article
How do I write a critique or critical review of a journal article?
How to critique a journal article: what seven universities ask for, CASP's questions for a trial, a structure template and a worked example critique.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
How to write a discursive essay, with a worked example
How do I write a discursive essay?
Write a discursive essay: what SQA Higher, National 5 and IELTS ask for, for-and-against and point-by-point structures, the conclusion, and a worked paragraph.
Secondary schoolUndergraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
How to write a dissertation abstract
How do I write the abstract of a dissertation or thesis, and how long should it be?
Write a dissertation abstract: its parts, the word limits from Oxford, MIT, UBC and others, keywords, tense, what to leave out, and a weak and strong example.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
How to write a dissertation conclusion chapter
How do I write the conclusion chapter of a dissertation or thesis?
Write a dissertation conclusion chapter: answer each objective, state the contribution for your level, place the limitations, and make specific recommendations.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
How to write a dissertation discussion chapter
How do I write the discussion chapter of a dissertation or thesis?
Write a dissertation discussion chapter: its purpose, a common order, using the literature review, cautious claims, and a worked paragraph built on real studies.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
How to write a dissertation introduction chapter
How do I write the introduction chapter of a dissertation or thesis?
Write a dissertation or thesis introduction: its jobs, how it differs from an essay introduction and a literature review, when to write it, and a worked opening.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
How to write a dissertation, from topic to submission
How do I write a dissertation, from choosing a topic to submitting it?
The whole dissertation, step by step: topic, research question, proposal, supervisor, ethics, chapters by discipline, a timeline and the final checks.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
How to write a grant proposal, from the funders' own guidance
How do I write a research grant proposal that meets the funder's rules and review criteria?
Write a research grant proposal from seven funders' own rules: the usual sections, page and word limits, review criteria, reference rules and why proposals fail.
PostgraduateResearcher
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
How to write a literature review: structure and synthesis
How do I structure and write a literature review?
Structure a literature review by theme, time, method, theory or debate, write synthesis instead of summary, end on the gap, and see what universities say on length.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
How to write a methodology chapter for a dissertation or thesis
How do I write the methodology chapter of a dissertation or thesis?
Write a dissertation methodology chapter: methodology against methods, what goes in, qualitative and quantitative differences, tense, voice and faults markers name.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
How to write a PhD thesis, and what examiners look for
How do I write a PhD thesis that examiners will pass?
How to write a PhD thesis: what seven universities' regulations require, what studies of examiners' reports found, the monograph's shape, length and the viva.
PostgraduateResearcher
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
How to write a research proposal for a dissertation or PhD
How do I write a research proposal for a dissertation, a master's or a PhD application?
The parts of a research proposal, the lengths eight universities set, how a PhD application proposal differs, what assessors mark, and a worked outline of our own.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 14 min read
How to write a short story, from first scene to final draft
How do I write a short story?
How long a short story is by prizes' and magazines' own limits, how to build scenes, voice, dialogue and endings, and what a university story and commentary need.
EveryoneUndergraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
How to write a thesis statement, with weak and strong examples
How do I write a strong thesis statement for an essay?
Write a thesis statement that is arguable, specific and answers the question, from ten universities' guides, with weak and strong examples in three subjects.
Secondary schoolUndergraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
How to write an abstract for an essay, lab report or article
How do I write an abstract for an essay, a lab report or a journal article?
Write the abstract of an essay, lab report or article: its parts, the limits APA and six journals set, tense, keywords, and weak and strong examples of our own.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
How to write an argumentative essay, with a worked example
How do I write an argumentative essay?
Write an argumentative essay: a contestable claim, evidence, counterargument and rebuttal, the classical, Toulmin and Rogerian structures, and a worked paragraph.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
How to write research questions, aims and objectives
How do I write research questions, aims, objectives and hypotheses for a dissertation?
Write a dissertation's aim, research questions, objectives and hypotheses, with PICO, PEO and SPIDER, worked examples, and how many the universities suggest.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
How to write to a word count: budget, cut and expand
How do I write an essay to a word count without going over or padding it?
Plan a word budget, cut an essay that runs over and expand one that falls short without padding, with real university tolerances and a paragraph cut by a third.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
Inclusive and bias-free language in academic writing
What do APA, MLA and Chicago say about inclusive and bias-free language in academic writing?
What APA 7, MLA 9, Chicago 18 and the UK and Australian government style guides say about bias-free language, side by side, with each source.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 12 min read
Machine translation in academic writing: is it allowed?
Can I use Google Translate or DeepL to translate my own essay into English?
What universities in the UK, US, Australia, Europe and Hong Kong and three journal publishers say about DeepL and Google Translate, and how to declare it.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 12 min read
Minor and major viva corrections, and what regulations mean
What do minor and major corrections after a PhD viva mean, and how long do I get to make them?
Viva corrections at nine universities: minor, major, resubmission, lower degree and fail, the time allowed, who checks, the corrections table, and final deposit.
PostgraduateResearcher
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
One space or two after a full stop? The history and the rule
Should I put one space or two after a full stop (period)?
Why typists put two spaces after a full stop, why APA 6 asked for them and APA 7 did not, what the reading study found, and how to clear double spaces in Word.
Everyone
September 26, 2026 · 12 min read
Orwell's six rules for writing, and when to break them
What are Orwell's six rules for writing, and do they work in academic writing?
Orwell's six rules from Politics and the English Language (1946), what each means for an essay, where they clash with academic writing, and what linguists say.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 12 min read
Over the word limit: what counts and what to cut
What counts towards an essay's word limit, and how do I cut an essay that is over it?
What seven universities count in a word limit, where a 10% margin really exists, and four before-and-after cuts that bring an essay back under it.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
PEEL paragraph structure, TEEL, MEAL and CER, with examples
What is a PEEL paragraph, and how do TEEL, MEAL and claim-evidence-reasoning differ?
PEEL, TEEL, MEAL, PETAL and claim-evidence-reasoning as a dozen universities and exam bodies define them, with four worked paragraphs built on real studies.
Secondary schoolUndergraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
Period or full stop inside or outside quotation marks?
Does a full stop (period) go inside or outside quotation marks?
Where full stops and commas go with quotation marks in American and British style, what APA, MLA, Chicago and Harvard ask, and how the rule began.
Everyone
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
Proofreading and editing a dissertation, and what is allowed
How do I proofread and edit my dissertation, and what is a proofreader allowed to do?
Edit a dissertation yourself in the right order, then see what Leeds, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Bristol, UCL and Nottingham let a proofreader or an AI tool do.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 12 min read
References in a grant application: NIH, NSF, UKRI and ERC rules
How do references work in a grant application, and do they count toward the page limit at NIH, NSF, UKRI and the ERC?
Funders' own rules for references in a grant application: NIH, NSF, UKRI, ERC and ARC on page limits, style, PMCIDs, preprints and links, read at source.
PostgraduateResearcher
September 26, 2026 · 14 min read
Reflective writing with Gibbs and other models, and how to cite
How do I write a reflective assignment with Gibbs or another model, and how do I cite sources in it?
Gibbs, Kolb, Schön, Rolfe, Johns and Brookfield from their sources, how to cite each, confidentiality on placement, and a reflection rewritten weak to strong.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
Report vs essay: how they differ and how to tell which is wanted
What is the difference between a report and an essay at university, and how do I know which one my assignment wants?
Compare a report and an essay: purpose, structure, tone and visuals, and how to tell from the brief which is wanted, with one topic written both ways.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 14 min read
Reporting guidelines for student research and dissertations
Which reporting guideline should my dissertation follow, and how do I use and cite it?
Which reporting guideline fits your dissertation, what each checklist and flow diagram asks, who requires one, and how to cite CONSORT, PRISMA or COREQ correctly.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
Research ethics approval for a dissertation, step by step
How do I get research ethics approval for a dissertation?
When a dissertation needs ethics approval, which review level applies, what the form asks for, the waits universities state, and what goes in the thesis.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
Signposting and linking words in academic writing
How do I use signposting and linking words in academic writing?
Major and minor signposting, linking words grouped by job, the common mistakes and how to punctuate them, from eleven universities' guides, with a worked paragraph.
Secondary schoolUndergraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
Strunk and White's Elements of Style: history, rules and critics
What is The Elements of Style, where did Strunk and White come from, and is its advice still good?
The story of The Elements of Style from Strunk's 1918 booklet to White's 1959 edition, its rules in academic writing, and what Pullum and other critics say.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
Submitting a thesis to the repository: embargoes and licences
How do I submit my thesis to the university repository, and can I put it under embargo?
Deposit a final thesis in the university repository: embargo reasons and limits at ten universities, licences, UKRI rules, EThOS, ProQuest and DOIs.
PostgraduateResearcher
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
The first scientific journals, Paris and London in 1665
What were the first scientific journals, and when did they start?
How the Journal des sçavans and Philosophical Transactions began in 1665, what they printed, who paid for them, and the journals that followed them.
Everyone
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
The history of peer review, from the Royal Society to today
When did peer review start, and how did it become standard for journals?
How refereeing grew from the Royal Society's committee of 1752 to Nature's rule of 1973, where the term came from, and what the studies of peer review found.
Everyone
September 26, 2026 · 12 min read
Thesis acknowledgements, dedication and front matter
What goes in the front matter of a thesis or dissertation, in what order, and how do I write the acknowledgements?
Put a thesis's front matter in order: title page, declarations, copyright, acknowledgements, dedication, contents and lists, from six universities' own rules.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
Thesis by publication: the rules for a PhD by published papers
How does a thesis by publication work, and what do universities require?
Thesis by publication rules at eight universities: how many papers, what status, co-authorship, the linking chapters, publishers' permission and references.
PostgraduateResearcher
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
Too many quotations in an essay: how to fix over-quoting
How many quotes should be in an essay, and how do I fix too many quotations?
How many quotes an essay can take, what writing centres say, when to quote, and how to turn over-quoting into paraphrase, with a before-and-after of our own.
Undergraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
Translating your paper into English for journal publication
Can I translate my paper into English and publish it in an English-language journal?
What the ICMJE, COPE and five publishers allow when you translate a paper into English, how to handle its references and credits, and a checklist to submit.
PostgraduateResearcher
September 26, 2026 · 12 min read
Turning a dissertation into a journal article
How do I turn my dissertation or thesis into a journal article?
Turn a dissertation or thesis into a journal article: what to cut, what six publishers say about prior publication, supervisor authorship and references.
PostgraduateResearcher
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
Undergraduate, master's and PhD dissertations compared
How do undergraduate, master's and PhD dissertations differ?
Undergraduate, master's and PhD dissertations side by side: originality, length, time, supervision, marking and the viva, from national frameworks and universities.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
Verbatim, intelligent verbatim and Jefferson transcription
How should I transcribe interviews for qualitative research: full verbatim, intelligent verbatim or Jefferson notation?
Choose between full verbatim, intelligent verbatim and Jefferson notation, lay out an interview transcript, quote it in APA 7 and report it in a methods chapter.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
What does sic mean? Using [sic] in a quote, and quoting dialect
What does [sic] mean in a quotation, how do I use it in APA, MLA, Chicago and Harvard, and should I use it for dialect or non-standard speech?
What [sic] means, where it goes and whether it is italicised in APA, MLA, Chicago and Harvard, and how to quote dialect, old spelling and speech fairly.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
Who decides what is correct English, if there is no academy?
Who decides what is correct English?
Why English has no academy, how dictionaries add words, what style guides and usage panels decide, and which rules an assignment actually has to follow.
Everyone
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
Who or whom? When to use whom in academic writing
When should I use whom instead of who, and does academic writing still need it?
When to use who or whom, the he or him test, whoever and whomever, why "whom I think is" is wrong, what corpus studies say, and what a formal paper needs.
Everyone
September 26, 2026 · 12 min read
Words that changed meaning over time, from nice to literally
Which English words have changed meaning over time, and what did they used to mean?
Thirteen English words that changed meaning, from nice and silly to decimate and literally, each dated from the dictionaries, and how to read them in old texts.
Everyone
September 26, 2026 · 13 min read
Working with your dissertation supervisor: what each side owes
How do I work with my dissertation or thesis supervisor, and what do we each owe the other?
What universities' codes of practice say a dissertation supervisor and student owe each other: meetings, feedback on drafts, records, disagreements and panels.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 24, 2026 · 14 min read
How to choose a journal and avoid predatory journals
How do I choose a journal for my paper, and how do I avoid predatory journals?
Choose a journal by scope, readers, indexing, fees and review times, and spot a predatory one with Think. Check. Submit. and COPE's and DOAJ's own criteria.
ResearcherPostgraduate
September 24, 2026 · 14 min read
How to respond to peer reviewers and revise a manuscript
How do I respond to peer reviewers' comments and revise my manuscript?
How to answer peer reviewers point by point after major or minor revisions, disagree with evidence, meet the deadline, and what to do after a rejection.
ResearcherPostgraduate
September 24, 2026 · 13 min read
How to write a cover letter to a journal editor
How do I write a cover letter to a journal editor when I submit a manuscript?
What journals ask a manuscript cover letter to contain, how each publisher treats suggested and opposed reviewers, what to leave out, and an outline to adapt.
Researcher
September 24, 2026 · 13 min read
How to write a journal article: IMRaD and what journals ask
How do I write a journal article in IMRaD form, and what do journals ask for?
How to write a journal article: what each part of IMRaD does, where the form came from, and what the ICMJE, PLOS ONE, Nature and BMJ ask of a manuscript.
Researcher
September 24, 2026 · 12 min read
Singular they: its history from Chaucer's day to APA 7
Is singular they correct, and what do APA, MLA, Chicago and AP say about it?
How singular they ran from Middle English to APA 7: the grammarians who objected, the dictionaries' evidence and what each style guide says now.
Everyone
September 23, 2026 · 13 min read
A prose guide for clear writing, from sentence to paragraph
How do I write clear sentences and paragraphs?
Clear sentences and paragraphs from government guidance, APA and research: sentence length, active and passive voice, jargon, clutter, signposting, revising.
Everyone
September 23, 2026 · 14 min read
Check APA 7 formatting before submission with Mechanics QA
How do I check my paper's APA 7 formatting before I submit it?
Check APA 7 formatting before you submit: the student paper's rules read at APA Style, what a Word file hides, and a real Mechanics QA run, finding by finding.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 23, 2026 · 13 min read
Does my paper answer the assignment question? How to check
Does my paper answer the assignment question, and how can I check before I submit?
Why marking criteria punish an essay that misses the question, a by-hand check that traces the brief to your paragraphs, and a worked example on a real brief.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 23, 2026 · 12 min read
Essay assignment checklist, from the brief to hand-in
What is the checklist for an essay assignment, from the brief to handing in?
One checklist for an undergraduate essay, from the brief to the receipt, with what marking criteria at three universities say about evidence and referencing.
Undergraduate
September 23, 2026 · 13 min read
How to get a short piece published in the New York Times
Can I get a short story or essay published in the New York Times?
What the New York Times takes from outside writers, from Modern Love to letters, how each is sent, and where a short story can go instead.
Everyone
September 23, 2026 · 13 min read
How to write a health sciences assignment in Vancouver style
How do I write an evidence-based practice essay or a case report in Vancouver style?
Write an evidence-based practice essay or a case report in Vancouver style: the PICO question, the search, appraisal, CARE and keeping the patient anonymous.
Undergraduate
September 23, 2026 · 13 min read
How to write a literary analysis essay in MLA style
How do I write a literary analysis essay in MLA style?
Write a literary analysis essay in MLA style: read closely, argue a thesis, explain every quotation, and cite a novel, a poem and a play the MLA way.
Secondary schoolUndergraduate
September 23, 2026 · 13 min read
How to write a news report, from the lead to the headline
How do I write a news report?
How newsrooms write a news report: the inverted pyramid, a short lead, attribution and "said", anonymous sources, fact checks, headlines and captions.
Everyone
September 23, 2026 · 12 min read
How to write a report with Harvard referencing
How do I write a report with Harvard referencing, and how is it different from an essay?
Write a report with Harvard referencing: each part in order, how it differs from an essay, and how to cite company reports, market data and statistics.
Undergraduate
September 23, 2026 · 13 min read
How to write an APA lab report or research paper
How do I write a research paper or lab report in APA style?
Write an APA lab report or research paper in IMRaD order, from APA's reporting standards and sample papers: what each section holds and how to report statistics.
Undergraduate
September 23, 2026 · 12 min read
How to write an IEEE conference paper or technical report
How do I write an IEEE conference paper or technical report?
Write an IEEE conference paper or technical report from the IEEE's own guidance: each part's job, contributions, double-blind rules, AI disclosure and camera-ready.
UndergraduatePostgraduate
September 23, 2026 · 13 min read
How to write and publish an ebook, from EPUB file to ISBN
How do I write and publish my own ebook?
Write and self-publish an ebook: each platform's files, covers, ISBN rules, royalties, DRM and AI disclosure, and how to cite and check a non-fiction book's sources.
Everyone
September 23, 2026 · 13 min read
The Oxford comma debate: style guides and the Maine dairy case
Should I use the Oxford comma, and which style guides require it?
Which style guides use the Oxford comma and which drop it, what the Maine dairy overtime case decided and how to choose for an assignment.
Everyone
September 22, 2026 · 13 min read
Common APA 7 formatting mistakes in student papers
What are the most common APA 7 formatting mistakes in student papers?
The APA 7 formatting rules that student papers break, from the title page to the reference list, each checked against the APA Style website.
Undergraduate
September 22, 2026 · 13 min read
How to cite sources in your first research paper
How do I cite sources in my first research paper?
A plain guide to citing for a first research paper. What needs a citation, the two parts of every citation, MLA or APA, worked examples and five mistakes to avoid.
Secondary school
September 22, 2026 · 13 min read
How to read an assignment brief and rubric
How do I read an assignment brief and rubric so I answer what was asked?
What command words such as analyse and evaluate ask for, where briefs hide their requirements, and how to turn a rubric's top band into a checklist before you write.
Undergraduate
September 22, 2026 · 12 min read
How to write an annotated bibliography, with an example
How do I write an annotated bibliography?
What an annotated bibliography is, the three kinds of annotation, the APA 7 and MLA 9 layouts, and one complete entry written out for a real journal article.
Undergraduate
September 22, 2026 · 13 min read
When to paraphrase, quote or summarise, without plagiarism
When should I paraphrase, quote or summarise, and how do I avoid accidental plagiarism?
One source passage used four ways, each with its APA 7 citation: patchwriting, a proper paraphrase, a quotation and a summary. Then how to read a similarity report.
Undergraduate